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Jaina Metaphysics speaks about the nature of reality.
This world of reality consists of two items Loka and Aloka,
the concrete world which is the object of our experience and the
beyond, which consists of pure space, respectively. The concrete
world is constituted by 5 real categories which are Asthikayas. These
are:
1. Jiva (soul)
2. Pudgala (matter)
3. Dharma (principal of rest)
4. Adharma (principal of motion)
5. Akasa
(space)
These are eternal and uncreated by any external agency and in
magnitude; it may be minute or huge. Since we saw the real and
existing categories, they are called Kayas. Hence, the term Asthikata means an existent reality that is related to space. The material
objects are related to space. This is quite obvious. Jiva or Soul is
also considered to be Asthikayas. Living being is always
associated with an organic body which is also an object in space.
Because of this relation to a body, Jiva is also an Asthikaya.
Dharma and Adharma,
the principle of rest and motion, are different from matter. They
are of a subtle form like ether. Since they pervade the whole world
space, they are also called Asthikayas. Space is also
considered an existential real. Hence, space is also Ipso Facto an Asthikaya. Unlike the various idealistic systems of
philosophy for which space is unreal, Jainism maintains that the
space has a reality.
The nature of the Asthikayas is such that they manifest themselves through their various
qualities and modes. These 5 existing reals or Asthikayas
undergo change while maintaining their identity. They have three
characteristics, appearing, disappearing and remaining permanent in
spite of the above qualities. They are Utpada, Vyaya and Drowvya
creation, destruction and permanence respectively. These are the
three fundamental qualities of real existence. The reality in
process of development exhibit these 3 qualities of appearance,
disappearance and underlying permanent identity called Drowvya.
The above mentioned 5 Asthikayas exhibit this quality of
change of development. For that reason, they are called Dravyas.
Dravya means that which flows.
Kala or time
has no relation to space. Hence, it is not included in the class of Asthikayas. But Kala or time has these qualities of Dravya. Kala
is also considered as a Dravya. Hence, the class Dravyas
consists of six items, the 5 Asthikayas and Kala or
time. These six Dravyas are mutually interpenetrating. Though
they exist together in the same world space, they maintain their
individual nature. The nature of Dravya is described thus:
That which maintains its identity while manifesting in various
qualities and modifications and which is not different from Satta or substance is called Dravya. In Jaina Metaphysics,
there is no unchanging substance or Satta. Satta or substance
is manifesting itself through various qualities and modes. Hence, it
is identical with Dravya or the development reality. Further, Dravya is defined thus : What all has substantiality as the
dialectical triad of birth, death and permanence, and is the
substratum of qualities and modes, is Dravya.
Here the three characteristics of Dravyas are
described. First Dravya has the quality of Sat or existence.
Secondly it has quality of permanence through birth and death.
Thirdly, it is the substratum of attributes and conditions. The
quality of Sat emphasises the substantial reality of Dravya. It is not merely the from of the intellect. It has existence
in Rerum Natura. The triple quality of dialectical change is
the second attribute. Utpada is appearance i.e., assuming new
modification. This does not mean creation out of nothing. Creation
by the flat of a will is not recognized by the Jainas.
Utpada therefore means that phase of the process of
the development when a new form is assumed. Vyaya is losing
the previous form. Here also it is different from absolute
disappearance. It only means that phase in the process of
development where the earlier form is replaced by the succeeding
one. Dhruva refers to the persistence of the essential nature of
Dravya which undergoes development and which makes both Utpada
and Vyaya simultaneously possible. In fact, the process of
development includes all the three phases. This fact in not only
recognized by the scientists like Drawing and Spencer but by the
great French philosopher Bergson who raised it to an important
philosophical principle. Lastly, Dravya is the substratum of
qualities and modes. Attributes and modifications will have no basis
if they do not rest on something real. This does not mean the Dravya
is merely a prop, supporting an alien fact the attribute; but still
the Jainas do not admit that the attributes alone are sufficient to
constitute a reality. For them, Esse is not Percipii.
Attributes in order to be objective and not merely psychical do
require an objective basis ; such a basis is Dravya. Finally
it is to be noted that these three characteristics are inseparable
from one another. Satta pre-supposes Utpada, Vyaya,
Dhruvatva and also is the substratum. Similarly, process of
development implies Satta, which again cannot exist apart
from qualities and modes. Neither of the three can exist apart from
the other two. In short, the three characteristics express the same
essential nature of Dravya in the different ways.
In examining the
nature of Dravya, we may attend to the underlying permanent
substance or the changing modes. The former point of view is called Dravyarthika Naya and the latter Paryayartika Naya. According to Dravyarthika Naya, for example, the substance, gold is neither created nor
can be destroyed. It exists as a permanent substance. But this gold
may be made into various ornaments and other things. These are its
modes or Paryayas. These modes are liable to change. One
ornament may be melted and another made. In melting ornament, its
shape is destroyed. In making a new ornament, a new shape is
created. Hence creating a new shape and destroying the old shape are
associated with the modes of the substance gold. Hence, these modes
are associated with Utpada and Vyaya creation and
destruction. Though substance and modes may be studied separately,
still they should not be assumed to be exiting independent of each
other. Substance cannot exist independent of its modes and mode
cannot exist independent of the substance. What is true of the
substance and its modes is equally true of the substance and its
qualities. For example, the qualities of gold, which are yellow,
heavy and malleable, are inseparably associated with the substance.
The qualities are but the manifestation of the nature of the
substance. No substance without its qualities and no quality without
its substance, are independent.
Each of the six Dravyas
has its own special qualities and modes. Let us take up the first Dravya,
Jiva or soul. Its nature is Chethana or consciousness.
Its essential qualities are perception and knowledge. These two Darsana and Gyana are called Upayoga. Jiva may be born as a Deva
or as a man or as a hell being or an animal. These various stages of
its existence are called its Paryayas or modes. Life in any
one of these forms subjected to birth, growth and old age and death.
These changes in its life are brought about by its association with
Karma. The Jiva because of its association with Karma undergoes the
above changes of birth, old age and death. This Jiva is
called Samsara Jiva. Because of its intimate connection with
Karma, Samsara Jiva is said to be impure. Its nature being impure,
its qualities and modes are necessarily impure. When the Jiva
completely liberates itself from Karma, it becomes pure. Then it is
called Suddha Jiva, the pure self. In this pure state, its
qualities are pure. The soul, which liberates itself from Samsara
and realises its pure nature in Moksha, is not entirely distinct
from the soul, which was in Samsara. They are not two different
entities. For example, a gem picked up from the mine may be covered
with impurities. But when it is purified and cut, the very same gem
becomes brilliant. Even so, every Jiva in Samsara is in the shackles
of Karma. When it breaks these chains and liberates itself, it
attains its state of Nirvana.
The attributes of
Samsaric Jiva are (1), life, i.e., its 10 pranas or life-principles,
(2) Chethana or consciousness, (3) Upayoga
knowledge and perception or Gyana and Darsana which are the two
Upayagas associated with Jiva or soul, (4) Prabhutva or
Lordship capacity to take different status of existence in Samsara,
(5) Kartha who is the actor of his own Karmas, (6) Bhokta or enjoyer he enjoys the fruits of his own Karmas;
(describing the Jiva as a Kartha, the Sankhya view that the Purusha
is not the actor but only the enjoyer is rejected. The statement
that Jiva is a Bhokta rejects the Buddhistic view that the soul that
acts and that which enjoys the fruits of its action are two
different entities). The next (7) Dehamatra of the same
size as the body. Its nature pervades the whole of its body. This
rejects the theory that the soul is a minute atom situated inside
the particular organ of the body i.e., the heart. The next is (8) Amurtha
being a spiritual entity has no corporeal form and the last
(9) Karma Samyukta which means always in association with
Karma.
The pure and
liberated self has got its own 9 qualities. They are: (1) Pure and
perfect self, (2) Perfect consciousness or Chethana, (3) Suddha
Upayaga or pure Upayaga consisting of Kevala Gyana and Kevala
Darsana, (4) Lordship- having destroyed the Karmas the self attains
perfect sovereignty, (5) he is true Kartha being entirely
uninfluenced by the alien conditions i.e., self determination, (6)
True Boktha enjoying the transcendent and infinite bliss, (7)
Spiritual in nature has a form similar to the last body, (8)
Completely devoid of corporeal form having destroyed the karmic body
and (9) completely free from Karmic body Karmanirumukta.
A living organism
has 4 Pranas or vital forces. They are (1) Bala Prana consisting
of Mano Bhala strength of mind, Vak Bhala, strength of speech
and Kaya Bala - strength of body, (2) Indrya Prana which
are the vital forces represented by the senses Sparsa contact,
Rasa taste, Grana smell, Sabda sound, and Chakshu
visual sense thus the Indrya Pranas are five, (3) Ayush Prana which is the duration of life and (4) Utchavasa Prana respiration.
These four main Pranas become
10 when the subdivisions are taken into consideration. That which
manifests through the 4 Pranas and
is living at present, was living in the past and will continue to
live in the future, that is Jiva.
Pudgala or
matter refers to the physical objects perceived by us. Pudgala exists
in two forms, Paramanu primary atom and Skanda aggregates
of atoms of molecules. These molecules or Skandas have the
characteristics of touch, taste, smell, sound and colour. These
aggregates may increase in volume or decrease, according as more
molecules combined with or break away as the case may be. These Skandas are of 6 different forms, such as earth, air, water, shade the
objects of the four senses, karmic matter and molecules which are
unfit to become karmic matter. These 6 kinds of
Skandas are described thus: (1) Bhadra Bhadra, solid;
(2) Bhadra liquid; (3) Sukshma Bhadra apparently
solid by the shadow; (4) Bhadra Sukshma minute particles
evident to the senses; (5) Sukshma minute and
imperceptible and (6) Sukshma Sukshma extremely minute.
All these Skandas are constituted by Paramanu, the
basis atom. Ordinary physical objects are all formed out of these
basic primary atoms. Like Jiva, primary atom is also uncreated and
indestructible. Some Indian systems of thought postulate different
kinds of atoms corresponding to 4 Bhuthas, earth, air, fire and
water. But according to Jaina philosophy, all atoms are all of
identical nature. With their differences in composition, they
produce various kinds of Dhathus such as earth, air etc.
Hence, there is no qualitative differences among Paramanus.
Skandas constituted
by Paramanus when they strike one another, produce sound. But the
Paramanus cannot produce sound. Hence, they are said to be
soundless. All objects of sense perception are constituted by Pudgala or matter. Anything that has the quality, colour, taste, smell,
touch and sound, comes under this head. Not only objects perceived
by the senses but also the sense organs are physical or material.
The various Sariras of
the organic bodies of the Jivas are also physical or material. Manas or mind is also considered to be physical. The term Sarira have
means all the 5 kinds of Sariras viz., Aoudarika Sarira,
Vaikriyaka Sarira, Aaharaka Sarira, Thaijasa Sarira and Karmana
Sarira. The term Karma Pudgala denotes minute material
particles which constitute the Karmana Sarira of a Jiva. No- Karma-Pudgala
refers to matter assimilated by the ordinary organic body through
the process of digestion and metabolism.
Dharmastikaya
is devoid of the sense qualities such as taste, colour, smell, touch
and sound. Hence it is different from Pudgala or matter. It pervades
the whole world. This description is also applicable to its opposite Adharmastikaya. The former is the principle of motion and the
latter is the principle of rest. It is Amurtha or
non-corporeal. It is not physical and hence sense qualities cannot
be associated with it. It is not the aggregate of the simple
elements as matter. It is co-existent with the world space. It is
permanent and real. It forms indispensable condition of movement of
physical objects and living beings. In itself, it is not capable of
movement nor is it capable of creating movement in other thing. The
analogy of water is used to illustrate its nature. Water is the
necessary condition of the movement of fish. But water does not in
any way impel the fish to move. Similarly, Dharmastikaya is the
necessary condition of motion among physical objects of living
beings. But it is not the cause of movement of those objects.
Adharmastikaya is
the principle of rest. Its nature is quite similar to the
Dharmastikaya. It is also devoid of sense qualities. Hence it
is also non-corporeal. It is co-extensive with Loka-Akasa. But it
has its own special quality. It is the basic condition of rest.
Because of this, the moving objects are brought to rest. The analogy
of earth is given in this respect. Earth does not actively arrest
the movement of objects physical and living. But it serves as a
place of rest for moving things. The existence of these two
principles is postulated as a necessary condition of the world
structure. The world is an organised system. It owes its organised
systems to these two principles of Dharma and Adharma. Otherwise,
material particles will be scattered through the whole space
converting the cosmos into chaos. Then there will be no world as
such. Though they themselves are Nishkriya Dravyas or
non-active things, yet they form the necessary condition of motion
or rest of things both living and non-living. In order to explain
the systematic structure of the cosmos, Jaina philosophy introduces
these two postulates of Dharma and Adharma. If these two principles
exist within the limit of world space causing motion and rest, then
things in motion must be moved forever and things at rest must be
stationary forever. But our experiences are quite different. One and
the same thing may be in motion or in rest. Therefore, Dharma and Adharma must not be considered as efficient causes. They are
quite neutral in themselves. Without these two entities, the world
is impossible and incomplete.
The Akasa
term means space. What give accommodation to things living and
non-living is called Akasa or space. According to Jaina
metaphysics, space is objectively real. According to philosophical
idealism, space cannot be real because it is considered to be self
contradictory. But modern mathematicians do not consider space as
self contradictory and impossible. It is assumed to be real. Space
contains the other 5 Dravyas. That portion of space where these
Dravyas exist is called Loka Akasa. Beyond this, there is
empty space called Aloka Akasa or Ananta Akasa. No
things exist in this infinite space.
Cannot Akasa or space be taken as a condition of motion and
rest? Why should the two other categories Dharma and Adharma be
postulated? Such a supposition would be impossible and conflicting
with the facts; for wherever there is space, there should be free
chance for motion and rest. But as a matter of fact, not a single
thing living of non-living steps beyond the limit of Loka Akasa.
Hence Akasa is not endowed with the function of motion and rest. If
space cannot be the condition of motion and rest, these must be
explained. Dharma and Adharma are such condition. Hence they are the
necessary constituents of the system of reality. Dharma
Adharma and Akasa all the three are inter-penetrating and
co-incident. They pervade the whole world. These 3 are Amurtha
Dravyas. They have no corporeal form. Ordinary physical objects
are having sense qualities. Jivas have psychic qualities. These 3 Dravyas have no such differentiating characteristics. They are
differentiated from one another according to their function.
Kala Dravya or
time Kala or time is one of the Dravyas according to Jaina
metaphysics. The whole world is a dynamic reality. Since it consists
of real, which are constantly changing, the idea of development or
change naturally implies time duration in which the development
takes place. If development is taken to be real, then time duration
which is the condition of development must also be real. The system
of philosophy which dismisses time as unreal must also dismiss
change and development as unreal. Since the Jaina thinkers recognize
the reality of development in the world, they do postulate real time
as an assessed condition of this development. Hence time is one of
the real Dravyas according to Jaina metaphysics.
Kala or time is of
two kinds: (1) the absolute or real time and (2) the conventional or
relative time. Conventional or relative time is measured by the
movement of physical objects. A period of relative time measured by
an external object like the sun or the moon has a definite beginning
and end. But real time, Dravya kala, is of an infinite duration. It
has neither beginning nor end. Idealistic system of philosophy
denies the reality of time. Time and space are considered to be
unreal because they are supposed to be self contradictory in nature.
The continental mathematicians such as Cantor, Peano and Frege have
shown clearly the fallacy of the idealistic argument against the
reality of time and space. The British mathematicians Bertrand
Russell and Whitehead have emphasized the philosophical importance
of these mathematical discoveries of the modern days. Thus according
to Jaina metaphysics, time is not only a reality but it is also a
potent factor in explaining the change and development in the real
world. Hence, time is included in the class of Dravyas or real
categories. Though it is endowed with existence, it has no Kayatva
or corporeal form. Hence, it is not included in the class of Astikayas.
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